Comparative Studies of Quran

Comparative Studies of Quran

A Comparative Study of the Relationship between Spirit and Divine Command in the Prophetic Experience: Insights from the Qur’an and the Bible

Document Type : Original

Authors
Azam sadat Shabani 1
Fathiyeh Fattahizadeh 2
1 Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Quranic and Hadith Sciences, Faculty of Theology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
2 Professor, Department of Quranic and Hadith Sciences, Faculty of Theology, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran.
10.22034/csq.2025.502378.1514
Abstract
Detailed Abstract
Research objective:
This study aims to investigate the conceptual and practical relationship between the “Spirit” and the “Divine Command” in the Qur’an and the Bible, and to elucidate the role of this connection in shaping the reception of revelation and the spiritual experiences of prophets, particularly the experience of Mi‘rāj (the Ascension).
The central research question is how understanding the “Spirit” as a “divine initiative” can lead to a clearer comprehension of the mechanism of revelation and the transmundane states of the prophet, and to what extent this pattern is shared or differs between the Qur’anic and Biblical traditions.
The main hypothesis of the study posits that the “Spirit of God,” in one of its fundamental applications, is essentially identical to the “revelation” or the “divine command” sent down to the prophets, functioning both in the transmission of the divine message and in enabling mystical experiences such as the Mi‘rāj.
Methodology:
This study follows a comparative-analytical method with an intra-textual approach. The Qur’anic verses and relevant passages from the Bible—including the Tanakh (Old Testament) and the New Testament—containing the keywords “Spirit,” “Command,” “Revelation,” and their equivalents (such as ’emer and dabar in Hebrew, and Logos in Greek) are carefully examined and compared.
The primary focus is on analyzing the semantic networks of these concepts within each text and subsequently assessing their similarities and differences across the two religious traditions. Despite the historical distance between the revelations of these texts, this comparative approach is considered valid and methodologically sound due to the Qur’an’s explicit references to previous scriptures and the shared narratives concerning prophetic experiences.
Findings:
The findings indicate that in both the Qur’an and the Bible, there exists a close and multifaceted relationship between the “Spirit” and the “Divine Command.”
In the Qur’an, the Spirit is explicitly described as a “divine initiative” that is immaterial, transcends time and space, and possesses a vitalizing function. This Spirit operates equivalently to revelation, such that in various verses—particularly in the Meccan period close to the Hijrah—the term “Spirit” often substitutes for “revelation” and serves as the primary agent in conveying God’s word to the Prophet (PBUH) and supporting his mission. Furthermore, the possibility of mystical experiences, such as the Mi‘rāj (Ascension), is also explained through this Spirit and its connection with the Divine Command.
In the Tanakh, the “Spirit of God” functions as a central agent in the uttering of God’s word to the prophets. This Spirit grants the prophets wisdom, understanding, strength, and the capacity to receive divine revelation. The Hebrew terms ’emer (אֵמֶר) and dabar, meaning “word” or “command,” similarly play a key role alongside the Spirit in shaping the revelatory experiences of the Israelite prophets.
In the New Testament, although the concept of prophecy evolved and the focus of the Holy Spirit shifted primarily toward guiding believers and the Church, the revelatory experiences of figures such as Paul and John demonstrate that the Spirit’s guiding role is ultimately analogous to its function in the Qur’an and the Tanakh.
Additionally, the concept of the Logos (Word), attributed to Jesus in the Gospel of John, can be partially compared to the “Divine Command” in the Qur’an, with the significant distinction that in the Qur’an, Jesus is a created being and a Word from God, whereas in Trinitarian theology, the Logos is considered an intrinsic part of God’s essence. This study clearly shows that the Qur’an rejects any identification of “God = Spirit” and regards the Spirit as a created entity.
This study demonstrates that there exists a reciprocal and equivalent relationship between the “Spirit” and the “Divine Command” in the context of prophecy and revelation. The Spirit, in one of its primary aspects, functions as the divine command, transmitting revelation and empowering the prophet. This pattern is shared between the Qur’an and the Bible, particularly the Tanakh, and understanding both concepts simultaneously provides a clearer explanation of the mechanism of revelation and the experiences associated with it.
Accordingly, experiences such as the Prophet’s Mi‘rāj (Ascension) should not be viewed as entirely separate events but as occurring within and based upon this connection between the prophet and the divine Spirit-Command.
The main distinction in Qur’anic theology lies in maintaining the boundary between Creator and creation, emphasizing that the Spirit is a created entity. In contrast, in the Christian tradition (New Testament), this boundary is blurred under the influence of Trinitarian doctrine. Furthermore, the direct and addressive style of the Qur’an, compared to the narrative style of the Tanakh, affects the way the audience relates to the concept of God and His command.
Keywords
Spirit
Divine Command
Revelation
Mi&‌‌lsquo
rāj
Qur&‌‌rsquo
an
Bible
Logos

Subjects

The Holy Qur’an" (1415 AH), translated by: Mahdi Fouladvand, Tehran: Dar al-Qur’an al-Karim.
The Holy Bible" (2016 AD), Ilam Publications.
Ibn Durayd, Muhammad ibn Hasan (1988 AD): "Jamharat al-Lughah", Beirut: Dar al-‘Ilm lil-Malayin.
Ibn Sina, Husayn ibn ‘Abdullah (2007 AD): "Risalat Ahwal al-Nafs", edited by: Fu’ad al-Ahwani, Paris: Dar Biblion.
Ibn Faris (1404 AH): "Mu‘jam Maqayis al-Lughah", edited by: ‘Abd al-Salam Muhammad Harun, Qom: Maktabat al-I‘lam al-Islami.
Ibn al-Qayyim al-Jawziyyah, Shams al-Din Abi ‘Abdullah (1402 AH): "Al-Ruh", Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah.
Azhari, Muhammad ibn Ahmad (1421 AH): "Tahdhib al-Lughah", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi.
Al-Alusi, Sayyid Mahmud (1415 AH): "Ruh al-Ma‘ani fi Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim", Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah.
Amini, ‘Abd al-Husayn (1387): "Al-Ghadir", translated by: Jalal al-Din Farsi et al., Tehran: Bonyad-e Ba‘that.
Al-Baydawi, ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Umar (1418 AH): "Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Ta’wil", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi.
Hasanzadeh Amoli, Hasan (1362): "Ma‘rifat al-Nafs", Tehran: Markaz-e Intisharat-e ‘Elmi va Farhangi.
Khorasani, Sharaf al-Din (1370): "Nakhastin Falsafeh-ha-ye Yunan", Tehran: Sherkat-e Sahami.
Dehkhoda, ‘Ali Akbar (1374): "Loghatnameh-ye Dehkhoda", supervised by: Dr. Muhammad Mo‘in, Tehran: Tehran University Press.
Razi, Fakhr al-Din Abu ‘Abdullah Muhammad ibn ‘Umar (1420 AH): "Mafatih al-Ghayb", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi.
Raghib al-Isfahani, Husayn ibn Muhammad (1374): "Translation of Mufradat Alfaz al-Qur’an", translated by: Tehran, publisher: Mortazavi.
Rahimpur, Forugh al-Sadat (1378): "Ma‘ad az Didgah-e Imam Khomeini", Tehran: Mu’assasah-ye Nashr-e Asar-e Imam Khomeini.
Rahimi, Amin; Sayyidah Zahra Musavi; Mehrdad Morvarid (1393): "Animal Symbols of the Soul in Mystical Texts with Emphasis on the Works of Sanai, ‘Attar, and Rumi", "Adabi Matn Pazhuhi", Year 18, No. 62, pp. 147–173.
Ruhani, Mahmud (1368): "Mu‘jam al-Ihsa’i li Alfaz al-Qur’an al-Karim", Tehran: Intisharat-e Qods-e Razavi.
Zamakhshari, Mahmud (1407 AH): "Al-Kashshaf ‘an Haqa’iq Ghawa’id al-Tanzil", Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi.
Sajjadi, Ja‘far (1373): "Farhang-e Ma‘aref-e Eslami", Tehran: Kumesh.
Suyuti, Jalal al-Din (1404 AH): "Al-Durr al-Manthur fi Tafsir al-Ma’thur", Qom: Ayatollah Mar‘ashi Najafi Library.
Shabani, Azam Sadat; Mohsen Ghasempour; Hossein Heydari (1402): "The Influence and Role of the Spirit in Prophethood: A Dialectic between the Bible and the Holy Qur’an", "Ma‘rifat-e Adyan Quarterly", 14(2), pp. 7–26.
Sha‘rawi, Sheikh Muhammad Mutawalli (1991 AD): "Khatirat Hawl al-Qur’an al-Karim (Tafsir al-Sha‘rawi)", Cairo: Al-Azhar, Majma‘ al-Buhuth al-Islamiyyah.
Sadr Hajj Sayyid Jawadi, Ahmad et al(1391): "Da’irat al-Ma‘arif-e Tashayyu‘", Tehran: Entesharat-e Hekmat.
Sadr al-Muta’allihin Shirazi, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim (1981 AD): "Al-Hikmah al-Muta‘aliyah fi al-Asfar al-‘Aqliyyah al-Arba‘ah", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi.
Saffar Qummi, Muhammad ibn al-Hasan (1381): "Basā’ir al-Darajāt al-Kubrā fi Fadā’il Āl Muhammad (AS)", edited by: Muhammad Sayyid Husayn Mu‘allim, Qom: Al-Maktabah al-Haydariyyah.
Tabataba’i, Sayyid Muhammad Husayn (1374): "Translation of Tafsir al-Mizan", translated by: Muhammad Baqir Musawi Hamadani, Qom: Daftar-e Entesharat-e Jame‘eh-ye Modarresin-e Hoze-ye ‘Elmiyyeh Qom.
Tabataba’i, Sayyid Muhammad Husayn (1417 AH): "Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an", Qom: Daftar-e Entesharat-e Jame‘eh-ye Modarresin-e Hoze-ye ‘Elmiyyeh Qom.
Tabarsi, Fadl ibn Hasan (1372): "Majma‘ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an", Tehran: Nashr-e Naser Khosrow.
Tusi, Muhammad ibn Hasan (n.d.): "Al-Tibyan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-‘Arabi.
‘Abdi, Vali; Motamedi, Mansur (1391): "A Comparative Study of the Christian Logos and the Qur’anic ‘Kalimah’", "Qur’anic and Hadith Studies", No. 44, pp. 97–115.
‘Aruzi al-Huwayzi, ‘Abd ‘Ali ibn Jum‘ah (1415 AH): "Tafsir Nur al-Thaqalayn", Qom: Intisharat-e Esma‘iliyan.
Farahidi, Khalil ibn Ahmad (1409 AH): "Al-‘Ayn", Qom: Nashr-e Hijrat.
Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn (1419 AH): "Min Wahy al-Qur’an", Beirut: Dar al-Malik.
Qurtubi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad (1364): "Al-Jami‘ li Ahkam al-Qur’an", Tehran: Nashr-e Khosrow.
Kabisi, Ahmad ‘Ubaid (1438 AH): "Mawsu‘at al-Kalimah wa Akhawatiha fi al-Qur’an al-Karim", Beirut: Dar al-Ma‘rifah.
Lane, Tony (1380): "Tarikh-e Tafakkur-e Masihi", translated by: Robert Asryan, Tehran: Nashr va Pazhuhesh-e Farzan.
Mustafawi, Hasan (1430 AH): "Al-Tahqiq fi Kalimat al-Qur’an al-Karim", Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah.
Muqatil ibn Sulayman (al-Balkhi) (1423 AH): "Tafsir Muqatil ibn Sulayman", Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath.
Maqdisi, al-Mutahhar ibn Tahir (n.d.): "Al-Bada’ wa al-Tarikh", Bursa‘id: Maktabat al-Thaqafah al-Diniyyah.
Nafisi, ‘Ali Akbar (134): "Nazim al-Atibba’", Tehran: Nashr-e Khiyam.
Hakes, James (1377): "Qamus-e Ketab-e Moghaddas", Tehran: Entesharat-e Asatir.
Huwari, Hud ibn Muhakkam (n.d.): "Tafsir Kitab Allah al-‘Aziz", edited and compiled by: Sharifi, Balhaj ibn Sa‘id, Dar al-Basa’ir, Algeria.
Horton, Stanley (n.d.): "Ruh al-Quds", translated by: Mehrdad Fathi, Tehran: Nashr-e Aftab-e ‘Adalat.
“The Holy Bible, New International Version” (2011 AD): Zondervan. (Original work published 1973) 
“The Holy Bible, King James Version”(2004 AD): (Original publication date 2001)
Barnes, Albert(1962 AD): “Barn’s note on the New Testament”. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Kregel Publications.
Ellicott, Charles J. (Ed) (1897 AD): “A new testament commentary for English readers”. Various writers. London: Cassell and Company.
Heron, E. Alasdair(1983 AD): “The Holy Spirit: In the Bible, the history of Christian thought and recent theology”. Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
Johnston, John S(1909 AD): “The philosophy of the fourth gospel”, New York.
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti, (2018 AD): “Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in ecumenical, international, and contextual perspective.” Baker Academic, Grand Rapid.
Koester, Craig. R(2020 AD): “The book of Revelation”. New York: Oxford University Press.
Levonian, Lootfy(1954 AD):“Book Review: The Development of the Meaning of Spirit in the Koran”. Muslim World, 44.
Luther, Martin(1906 AD): “Sermons of Martin Luther” (J. N. Lenker, Ed.). Michigan: Baker Book House.
Macdonald, Duncan. B(1932 AD): “The Muslim world: The development of the idea of spirit in Islam”. Akadémiai Kiadó Acta Orientalia: Budapest, Hungary
Marvin Pate, C. M(2013 AD): “Captions and illustrating the text sections (Romans)”. Washigton D.C.: Baker Books.
Moncreiff, William. G(1853 AD): “Spirit or the Hebrew terms ruach and neshama and the Greek term pneuma” London: Ward & Co.
O’Shaughnessy, Thomas(1948 AD): “The Koranic concept of the word of God”. Roma: Pontificio Instiuto.
Plumpter, Edward. H(1910 AD): “The new testament commentary” (C. J. Ellicott, Ed.). London; New York: Cassell and company limited.
Saint John of Damascus(1950 AD): “Saint John of Damascus writings (The Fathers of the Church: A New Translation)”. Vol. 37. Translated by Feredric H. Chase, Jr. Washington, D. C: The Catholic University of America Press (Original work published ca. 8th century).
Shellabear, William. G(1932 AD): “The meaning of the word 'spirit' as used in the Koran”. Muslim World, 22.
Voltaire, François-Marie Arouet, (1852 AD): “Philosophical dictionary” (M. de Voltaire, Trans.). Boston: J. P. (Original work published 1764)
Wilson, William(1870 AD): “The Bible student’s guide”. London: Macmillan & Co.
Wolfson, Harry. A(1965 AD): “Religious philosophy: A group of essays”. Harvard University Press.
Wuest, Kenneth. S(1973 AD): “Wuest’s word studies from the Greek New Testament”. Michigan: Eerdmans Publishing Company.

  • Receive Date 27 November 2024
  • Revise Date 23 January 2025
  • Accept Date 11 March 2025
  • Publish Date 23 July 2025